NIBR-LTSi is a selective LATS kinase inhibitor activating YAP signaling and expanding tissue stem cells in vitro and in vivo.

The YAP/Hippo pathway is an organ growth and size regulation rheostat safeguarding multiple tissue stem cell compartments. LATS kinases phosphorylate and thereby inactivate YAP, thus representing a potential direct drug target for promoting tissue regeneration. Here, we report the identification and characterization of the selective small-molecule LATS kinase inhibitor NIBR-LTSi. NIBR-LTSi activates YAP signaling, shows good oral bioavailability, and expands organoids derived from several mouse and human tissues. In tissue stem cells, NIBR-LTSi promotes proliferation, maintains stemness, and blocks differentiation in vitro and in vivo. NIBR-LTSi accelerates liver regeneration following extended hepatectomy in mice. However, increased proliferation and cell dedifferentiation in multiple organs prevent prolonged systemic LATS inhibition, thus limiting potential therapeutic benefit. Together, we report a selective LATS kinase inhibitor agonizing YAP signaling and promoting tissue regeneration in vitro and in vivo, enabling future research on the regenerative potential of the YAP/Hippo pathway.

Clinical translation of liver regeneration therapies: A conceptual road map.

The increasing incidence of severe liver diseases worldwide has resulted in a high demand for curative liver transplantation. Unfortunately, the need for transplants by far eclipses the availability of suitable grafts leaving many waitlisted patients to face liver failure and often death. Routine use of smaller grafts (for example left lobes, split livers) from living or deceased donors could increase the number of life-saving transplants but is often limited by the graft versus recipient weight ratio defining the safety margins that minimize the risk of small for size syndrome (SFSS). SFSS is a severe complication characterized by failure of a small liver graft to regenerate and occurs when a donor graft is insufficient to meet the metabolic demand of the recipient, leading to liver failure as a result of insufficient liver mass. SFSS is not limited to transplantation but can also occur in the setting of hepatic surgical resections, where life-saving large resections of tumors may be limited by concerns of post-surgical liver failure. There are, as yet no available pro-regenerative therapies to enable liver regrowth and thus prevent SFSS. However, there is optimism around targeting factors and pathways that have been identified as regulators of liver regeneration to induce regrowth in vivo and ex vivo for clinical use. In this commentary, we propose a roadmap for developing such pro-regenerative therapy and for bringing it into the clinic. We summarize the clinical indications, preclinical models, pro-regenerative pathways and safety considerations necessary for developing such a drug.

YAP, but Not RSPO-LGR4/5, Signaling in Biliary Epithelial Cells Promotes a Ductular Reaction in Response to Liver Injury.

Biliary epithelial cells (BECs) form bile ducts in the liver and are facultative liver stem cells that establish a ductular reaction (DR) to support liver regeneration following injury. Liver damage induces periportal LGR5+ putative liver stem cells that can form BEC-like organoids, suggesting that RSPO-LGR4/5-mediated WNT/ß-catenin activity is important for a DR. We addressed the roles of this and other signaling pathways in a DR by performing a focused CRISPR-based loss-of-function screen in BEC-like organoids, followed by in vivo validation and single-cell RNA sequencing. We found that BECs lack and do not require LGR4/5-mediated WNT/ß-catenin signaling during a DR, whereas YAP and mTORC1 signaling are required for this process. Upregulation of AXIN2 and LGR5 is required in hepatocytes to enable their regenerative capacity in response to injury. Together, these data highlight heterogeneity within the BEC pool, delineate signaling pathways involved in a DR, and clarify the identity and roles of injury-induced periportal LGR5+ cells.

A Simplified Definition of Histologic Improvement in Ulcerative Colitis and its Association With Disease Outcomes up to 30 Weeks from Initiation of Therapy: Post Hoc Analysis of Three Clinical Trials.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Histologic evaluation is a meaningful complement to endoscopic and clinical measures in ulcerative colitis [UC]. There is a need for a definition of histologic improvement that can be used in clinical trials, and any such definition must be predictive of disease outcomes. METHODS: Biopsies were collected from clinical trials (PURSUIT-SC [n = 98], JAK-UC [n = 219], and PROgECT [n = 103]) in patients with moderate-to-severe UC. A pathologist assessed biopsies in a blinded fashion using the Geboes score. A dichotomous histologic improvement end point was defined by selecting Geboes score elements according to their association strength with endoscopic healing. Fisher's exact test and Cramer's V assessed the association of histology with other measures. RESULTS: Using PURSUIT-SC biopsies, histologic improvement was defined as absence of erosion or ulceration, absence of crypt destruction, and <5% of crypts with epithelial neutrophil infiltration. Histologic improvement was associated with endoscopic healing, as >90% of those with endoscopic healing in JAK-UC [Week 8] and PROgECT [Week 30] achieved histologic improvement. In JAK-UC, patients with histologic improvement had lower disease activity than patients without histologic improvement' [Mayo score = 3.8 vs 7.5] at Week 8. Week 4 histologic improvement was a strong indicator of histologic improvement, endoscopic healing, and clinical response or remission at Week 8 [all p < 0.005]. In PROgECT, 73% of patients with histologic improvement at Week 6 achieved histologic improvement at Week 30 [p = 0.0013]. CONCLUSIONS: Histologic improvement based on a simplified, dichotomous Geboes score is associated with favourable endoscopic and clinical outcomes across multiple clinical studies and two therapeutic mechanisms of action.ClinicalTrials.gov number: NCT00487539 [PURSUIT-SC]; NCT01959282 [JAK-UC]; NCT01988961 [PROgECT].

Gene Expression Signature for Prediction of Golimumab Response in a Phase 2a Open-Label Trial of Patients With Ulcerative Colitis.

Golimumab, a tumor necrosis factor antagonist, is an effective treatment for patients with moderate-to-severe ulcerative colitis (UC); however, more than 50% of initial responders lose their response to the drug within the first year of therapy. A gene expression signature identified in colon biopsies collected before treatment was associated with response to infliximab, and was subsequently refined to associate with mucosal healing in response to golimumab. We performed a phase 2a open-label study of 103 golimumab-treated patients with moderate-to-severe UC to test whether the baseline gene expression signature could be used to predict which patients would achieve mucosal healing, clinical response, and clinical remission at weeks 6 and 30 of treatment. The gene expression signature identified patients who went on to achieve mucosal healing at treatment week 6 with an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUCROC) of 0.688 (P = .002) and at week 30 with an AUCROC of 0.671 (P = .006). The signature identified patients with mucosal healing with 87% sensitivity, but only 34% specificity, limiting its clinical utility. The baseline gene expression signature did not identify patients who went on to achieve clinical remission or clinical response with statistical significance. Further studies are needed to identify biomarkers that can be used to predict which patients with UC will respond to treatment with anti-tumor necrosis factor agents. ClinicalTrials.gov no: NCT01988961.

Fibronectin Extra Domain A Promotes Liver Sinusoid Repair following Hepatectomy.

Liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSECs) are the main endothelial cells in the liver and are important for maintaining liver homeostasis as well as responding to injury. LSECs express cellular fibronectin containing the alternatively spliced extra domain A (EIIIA-cFN) and increase expression of this isoform after liver injury, although its function is not well understood. Here, we examined the role of EIIIA-cFN in liver regeneration following partial hepatectomy. We carried out two-thirds partial hepatectomies in mice lacking EIIIA-cFN and in their wild type littermates, studied liver endothelial cell adhesion on decellularized, EIIIA-cFN-containing matrices and investigated the role of cellular fibronectins in liver endothelial cell tubulogenesis. We found that liver weight recovery following hepatectomy was significantly delayed and that sinusoidal repair was impaired in EIIIA-cFN null mice, especially females, as was the lipid accumulation typical of the post-hepatectomy liver. In vitro, we found that liver endothelial cells were more adhesive to cell-deposited matrices containing the EIIIA domain and that cellular fibronectin enhanced tubulogenesis and vascular cord formation. The integrin α9ß1, which specifically binds EIIIA-cFN, promoted tubulogenesis and adhesion of liver endothelial cells to EIIIA-cFN. Our findings identify a role for EIIIA-cFN in liver regeneration and tubulogenesis. We suggest that sinusoidal repair is enhanced by increased LSEC adhesion, which is mediated by EIIIA-cFN.

Genetic lineage tracing analysis of the cell of origin of hepatotoxin-induced liver tumors in mice.

UNLABELLED: The expression of biliary/progenitor markers by hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is often associated with poor prognosis and stem cell-like behaviors of tumor cells. Hepatocellular adenomas (HCAs) also often express biliary/progenitor markers and frequently act as precursor lesions for HCC. However, the cell of origin of HCA and HCC that expresses these markers remains unclear. Therefore, to evaluate if mature hepatocytes give rise to HCA and HCC tumors and to understand the molecular pathways involved in tumorigenesis, we lineage-labeled hepatocytes by injecting adeno-associated virus containing thyroxine-binding globulin promoter-driven causes recombination (AAV-TBG-Cre) into Rosa(YFP) mice. Yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) was present in >96% of hepatocytes before exposure to carcinogens. We treated AAV-TBG-Cre; Rosa(YFP) mice with diethylnitrosamine (DEN), followed by multiple injections of carbon tetrachloride to induce carcinogenesis and fibrosis and found that HCA and HCC nodules were YFP(+) lineage-labeled; positive for osteopontin, SRY (sex determining region Y)-box 9, and epithelial cell adhesion molecule; and enriched for transcripts of biliary/progenitor markers such as prominin 1, Cd44, and delta-like 1 homolog. Next, we performed the converse experiment and lineage-labeled forkhead box protein L1(Foxl1)-positive hepatic progenitor cells simultaneously with exposure to carcinogens. None of the tumor nodules expressed YFP, indicating that Foxl1-expressing cells are not the origin for hepatotoxin-induced liver tumors. We confirmed that HCA and HCC cells are derived from mature hepatocytes and not from Foxl1-Cre-marked cells in a second model of toxin-induced hepatic neoplasia, using DEN and 3,3',5,5'-tetrachloro-1,4-bis(pyridyloxy)benzene (TCPOBOP). CONCLUSION: Hepatocytes are the cell of origin of HCA and HCC in DEN/carbon tetrachloride and DEN/TCPOBOP induced liver tumors. (Hepatology 2016;64:1163-1177).

A genetic screen reveals Foxa3 and TNFR1 as key regulators of liver repopulation.

The fundamental question of which genes are most important in controlling liver regeneration remains unanswered. We employed a parallel screen to test the impact of 43 selected genes on liver repopulation in the Fah(-/-) mouse model of hereditary tyrosinemia. We discovered that the transcription factor Foxa3 was a strong promoter of liver regeneration, while tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 (TNFR1) was the most significant suppressor of repopulation among all of the genes tested. Our approach enabled the identification of these factors as important regulators of liver repopulation and potential drug targets for the promotion of liver repopulation.

Ablation of Foxl1-Cre-labeled hepatic progenitor cells and their descendants impairs recovery of mice from liver injury.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Foxl1(+) hepatic progenitor cells (HPCs) differentiate into cholangiocytes and hepatocytes after liver injury. We investigated the requirement for Foxl1(+) HPCs in recovery from liver injury in mice. METHODS: We developed mice in which we could trace and delete Foxl1-expressing HPCs and their descendants (Foxl1-Cre;Rosa(YFP/iDTR)-inducible diphtheria toxin receptor [iDTR] mice). Foxl1-Cre-negative mice were used as controls. Liver damage was induced in male mice by placing them on choline-deficient, ethionine-supplemented (CDE) diets for 15 days; mice then were placed on normal diets and allowed to recover. Liver damage was induced in female mice by placing them on 3,5-diethoxycarbonyl-1,4-dihydrocollidine (DDC)-containing diets, followed by a recovery period. Some mice were given injections of diphtheria toxin during the recovery phase to delete Foxl1-Cre-marked HPCs and their descendants. Livers were collected from all mice and analyzed by immunofluorescence, quantitative reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction, flow cytometry, and histologic analyses. RESULTS: Foxl1-Cre-marked HPCs were required for the development of cholangiocytes and hepatocytes in livers after CDE diet-induced injury. A smaller percentage of yellow fluorescent protein-positive (YFP(+)) hepatocytes contained markers of oxidative stress, DNA damage, or cell death than YFP-negative hepatocytes, indicating that YFP(+) hepatocytes are newly formed cells. Injection of diphtheria toxin deleted YFP(+) cells from Foxl1-Cre;Rosa(YFP/iDTR) mice and prevented the resolution of hepatic steatosis. In mice recovering from DDC diet-induced injury, most cholangiocytes arose from Foxl1-Cre-marked HPCs. Deletion of YFP(+) cells did not alter levels of markers of liver injury or liver function. CONCLUSIONS: Based on studies of Foxl1-Cre;Rosa(YFP/iDTR) mice, Foxl1(+) HPCs and/or their descendants are required for the development of cholangiocytes and hepatocytes in liver after CDE diet-induced injury.

Protein tyrosine phosphatase of liver regeneration-1 is required for normal timing of cell cycle progression during liver regeneration.

Protein tyrosine phosphatase of liver regeneration-1 (Prl-1) is an immediate-early gene that is significantly induced during liver regeneration. Several in vitro studies have suggested that Prl-1 is important for the regulation of cell cycle progression. To evaluate its function in liver regeneration, we ablated the Prl-1 gene specifically in mouse hepatocytes using the Cre-loxP system. Prl-1 mutant mice (Prl-1(loxP/loxP);AlfpCre) appeared normal and fertile. Liver size and metabolic function in Prl-1 mutants were comparable to controls, indicating that Prl-1 is dispensable for liver development, postnatal growth, and hepatocyte differentiation. Mutant mice demonstrated a delay in DNA synthesis after 70% partial hepatectomy, although ultimate liver mass restoration was not affected. At 40 h posthepatectomy, reduced protein levels of the cell cycle regulators cyclin E, cyclin A2, cyclin B1, and cyclin-dependent kinase 1 were observed in Prl-1 mutant liver. Investigation of the major signaling pathways involved in liver regeneration demonstrated that phosphorylation of protein kinase B (AKT) and signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) 3 were significantly reduced at 40 h posthepatectomy in Prl-1 mutants. Taken together, this study provides evidence that Prl-1 is required for proper timing of liver regeneration after partial hepatectomy. Prl-1 promotes G1/S progression via modulating expression of several cell cycle regulators through activation of the AKT and STAT3 signaling pathway.

Dynamic recruitment of microRNAs to their mRNA targets in the regenerating liver.

BACKGROUND: Validation of physiologic miRNA targets has been met with significant challenges. We employed HITS-CLIP to identify which miRNAs participate in liver regeneration, and to identify their target mRNAs. RESULTS: miRNA recruitment to the RISC is highly dynamic, changing more than five-fold for several miRNAs. miRNA recruitment to the RISC did not correlate with changes in overall miRNA expression for these dynamically recruited miRNAs, emphasizing the necessity to determine miRNA recruitment to the RISC in order to fully assess the impact of miRNA regulation. We incorporated RNA-seq quantification of total mRNA to identify expression-weighted Ago footprints, and developed a microRNA regulatory element (MRE) prediction algorithm that represents a greater than 20-fold refinement over computational methods alone. These high confidence MREs were used to generate candidate 'competing endogenous RNA' (ceRNA) networks. CONCLUSION: HITS-CLIP analysis provide novel insights into global miRNA:mRNA relationships in the regenerating liver.

Robust cellular reprogramming occurs spontaneously during liver regeneration.

Cellular reprogramming-the ability to interconvert distinct cell types with defined factors-is transforming the field of regenerative medicine. However, this phenomenon has rarely been observed in vivo without exogenous factors. Here, we report that activation of Notch, a signaling pathway that mediates lineage segregation during liver development, is sufficient to reprogram hepatocytes into biliary epithelial cells (BECs). Moreover, using lineage tracing, we show that hepatocytes undergo widespread hepatocyte-to-BEC reprogramming following injuries that provoke a biliary response, a process requiring Notch. These results provide direct evidence that mammalian regeneration prompts extensive and dramatic changes in cellular identity under injury conditions.

Foxl1-Cre-marked adult hepatic progenitors have clonogenic and bilineage differentiation potential.

Isolation of hepatic progenitor cells is a promising approach for cell replacement therapy of chronic liver disease. The winged helix transcription factor Foxl1 is a marker for progenitor cells and their descendants in the mouse liver in vivo. Here, we purify progenitor cells from Foxl1-Cre; RosaYFP mice and evaluate their proliferative and differentiation potential in vitro. Treatment of Foxl1-Cre; RosaYFP mice with a 3,5-diethoxycarbonyl-1,4-dihydrocollidine diet led to an increase of the percentage of YFP-labeled Foxl1(+) cells. Clonogenic assays demonstrated that up to 3.6% of Foxl1(+) cells had proliferative potential. Foxl1(+) cells differentiated into cholangiocytes and hepatocytes in vitro, depending on the culture condition employed. Microarray analyses indicated that Foxl1(+) cells express stem cell markers such as Prom1 as well as differentiation markers such as Ck19 and Hnf4a. Thus, the Foxl1-Cre; RosaYFP model allows for easy isolation of adult hepatic progenitor cells that can be expanded and differentiated in culture.

The role of stem cells in liver repair and fibrosis.

In response to liver injury or loss of liver mass, proliferation of mature liver cells is the first-line defense to restore liver homeostasis. In the setting of chronic liver disease, however, the ability of hepatocytes and cholangiocytes to proliferate is blocked and small bipotential progenitor cells are activated. Recent studies have established the role of these facultative progenitor cells in injury repair and fibrosis in patients with chronic liver disease and in experimental models. Several signaling pathways linking progenitor cell activation and fibrosis have been identified, and there is increasing evidence that cross-talk (both physical and via soluble factors) between progenitor cells and myofibroblasts is essential for both fibrosis and parenchymal regeneration. Even more exciting are new data examining the cellular components of the progenitor cell niche, demonstrating that both resident liver cells and circulating cells from the bone marrow can function as stem cells, suggesting that there is a surprising degree of phenotypic plasticity such that progenitor cells can contribute to the myofibroblast population and vice versa. We highlight here recent findings from the literature demonstrating the cellular and functional complexity of the progenitor cell niche, and emphasize some of the important questions that remain to drive future research.

Tissue-specific regulation of mouse microRNA genes in endoderm-derived tissues.

MicroRNAs fine-tune the activity of hundreds of protein-coding genes. The identification of tissue-specific microRNAs and their promoters has been constrained by the limited sensitivity of prior microRNA quantification methods. Here, we determine the entire microRNAome of three endoderm-derived tissues, liver, jejunum and pancreas, using ultra-high throughput sequencing. Although many microRNA genes are expressed at comparable levels, 162 microRNAs exhibited striking tissue-specificity. After mapping the putative promoters for these microRNA genes using H3K4me3 histone occupancy, we analyzed the regulatory modules of 63 microRNAs differentially expressed between liver and jejunum or pancreas. We determined that the same transcriptional regulatory mechanisms govern tissue-specific gene expression of both mRNA and microRNA encoding genes in mammals.

Nuclear factor κB up-regulation of CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein ß mediates hepatocyte resistance to tumor necrosis factor α toxicity.

UNLABELLED: The sensitization of hepatocytes to cell death from tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) underlies many forms of hepatic injury, including that from toxins. Critical for hepatocyte resistance to TNFα toxicity is activation of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) signaling, which prevents TNFα-induced death by the up-regulation of protective proteins. To further define the mechanisms of hepatocyte sensitization to TNFα killing, immunoblot analysis comparing livers from mice treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) alone or LPS together with the hepatotoxin galactosamine (GalN) was performed to identify TNFα-induced protective proteins blocked by GalN. Levels of CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein ß (C/EBPß) were increased after LPS treatment but not GalN/LPS treatment. In a nontransformed rat hepatocyte cell line, TNFα-induced increases in C/EBPß protein levels were dependent on NF-κB-mediated inhibition of proteasomal degradation. Pharmacological inhibition of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) did not affect C/EBPß degradation, indicating that the process was JNK-independent. C/EBPß functioned to prevent cell death as adenoviral C/EBPß overexpression blocked TNFα-induced apoptosis in cells sensitized to TNFα toxicity by NF-κB inhibition. C/EBPß inhibited TNFα-induced caspase 8 activation and downstream mitochondrial cytochrome c release and caspase 3 and caspase 7 activation. Studies in primary hepatocytes from c/ebpß(-/-) mice confirmed that loss of C/EBPß increased death from TNFα. c/ebpß(-/-) mice were also sensitized to liver injury from a nontoxic dose of LPS or TNFα. The absence of jnk2 failed to reverse the GalN-induced block in C/EBPß induction by LPS, again demonstrating that C/EBPß degradation was JNK-independent. CONCLUSION: C/EBPß is up-regulated by TNFα and mediates hepatocyte resistance to TNFα toxicity by inhibiting caspase-dependent apoptosis. In the absence of NF-κB signaling, proteasomal degradation of C/EBPß is increased by a JNK-independent mechanism and promotes death from TNFα.

From skin cells to hepatocytes: advances in application of iPS cell technology.

The discovery several years ago that fibroblasts and other somatic cells from mice and humans can be reprogrammed to become inducible pluripotent stem (iPS) cells has created enthusiasm for their potential applications in regenerative medicine and for modeling human diseases. Two independent studies in this issue of the JCI provide evidence that iPS cells represent a promising source of hepatocytes for a wide range of applications, including cell transplantation, drug toxicity testing, patient-specific disease modeling, and even ex vivo gene therapy. But how far have we come?

Foxl1 promotes liver repair following cholestatic injury in mice.

Cholangiocyte proliferation is one of the hallmarks of the response to cholestatic injury. We previously reported that the winged helix transcription factor Foxl1 is dramatically induced in cholangiocytes following bile duct ligation. In this study, we investigated the function of Foxl1 in the bile duct ligation model of cholestatic liver injury in Foxl1(-/-) and control mice. We found that Foxl1(-/-) livers exhibit an increase in parenchymal necrosis, significantly impaired cholangiocyte and hepatocyte proliferation, and failure to expand bile ductular mass. Wnt3a and Wnt7b expression was decreased in the livers of Foxl1(-/-) mice along with reduced expression of the beta-catenin target gene Cyclin D1 in Foxl1(-/-) cholangiocytes. These results show that Foxl1 promotes liver repair after bile-duct-ligation-induced liver injury through activation of the canonical wnt/beta-catenin pathway.

Foxl1 is a marker of bipotential hepatic progenitor cells in mice.

UNLABELLED: The liver contains a population of small bipotential facultative progenitor cells that reconstitute liver function when mature hepatocytes or cholangiocytes are unable to proliferate. Mesenchymal markers, including members of the forkhead transcription factor gene family, have been detected in hepatic progenitor cells. The winged helix transcription factor Foxl1 localizes to mesenchymal cells in the intestine; however, its expression in the liver has not been reported. We found that Foxl1 is expressed in rare cells in the normal liver but is dramatically induced in the livers of mice that have undergone bile duct ligation or were fed a 3,5-diethoxycarbonyl-1,4-dihydrocollidine (DDC)-containing or choline-deficient, ethionine-supplemented diet. In addition, we employed genetic lineage tracing using a Foxl1-Cre transgenic mouse crossed with the Rosa26R lacZ reporter line to demonstrate that Foxl1-Cre-expressing cells are present within the periportal region shortly after injury. These cells give rise to both hepatocytes [marked by hepatocyte nuclear factor 4 alpha (HNF-4alpha) expression] and cholangiocytes (marked by CK19 expression), indicating that these cells are derived from Foxl1-Cre-expressing cells. Foxl1-Cre-expressing cells are distinct from hepatic stellate cells, portal fibroblasts, and myofibroblasts, although they are located in close proximity to portal fibroblasts. These results demonstrate that the early Foxl1-Cre lineage cell gives rise to both cholangiocytes and hepatocytes after liver injury and suggest the potential for progenitor-portal fibroblast cell interactions. CONCLUSION: We propose that Foxl1 is a bona fide marker of the facultative progenitor cell in the mouse liver.